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19-06-2016, 08:00 PM
h e i a u v e C l a u s e s
a b o u t . )
i H i n e g i n w n u i w a s
B
A relative clause gives more information about someone or something referred to in a main
clause. Some relative clauses (defining relative clauses) are used to specify which person or thing
we mean, or which type of person or thing we mean:
• The couple who live next to us have sixteen grandchildren.
• Andrew stopped the police car that was driving past.
Notice that we don't put a comma between the noun and a defining relative clause. Relative
clauses begin with a relative pronoun: a wh-yvovA (who, which, etc.) or that. However,
sometimes we omit the wh-word I that and use a zero relative pronoun (see B below):
• We went to a restaurant (which/that) Jane had recommended to us.
We prefer to put a relative clause immediately after or as close as possible to the noun it adds
information to:
^ • The building for sale was the house which had a slate roof and was by the stream.
• (rather than The building for sale was the house by the stream which had a slate roof.)
When we use a defining relative clause, the relative pronoun can be the subject or the object of
the clause. In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the subject. Notice that the verb
follows the relative pronoun:
• Rockall is an uninhabited island which/that lies north west of mainland Scotland.
• We have a friend who/that plays the piano.
In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the object. Notice that there is a noun (or
pronoun) between the relative pronoun and the verb in the relative clause. In this case, we can
use a zero relative pronoun:
• He showed me the rocks (which/that) he had brought back from Australia.
• That's the man (who/that) I met at Allison's party.
Adding information about things Adding information about people
Relative
pronoun
subject
object
which
/
/
that
/
/
zero relative
pronoun
X
/
Relative
pronoun
subject
object
who
/
/
that
/
/
zero relative
pronoun
X
We can also use whom instead of who as object, although whom is very formal:
• She's an actress whom most people think is at the peak of her career.
We use that as subject after something and anything; words such as all, little, much, and none
used as nouns; and superlatives. (Which is also used as subject after something and anything, but
less commonly.) We use that or zero relative pronoun as object after these:
• These walls are all that remain of the city, (not ...all which remain...)
• She's one of the kindest people (that) I know, (not ...who I know.)
• Is there anything (that) I can do to help? (rather than ...anything which I can do...)
You can't add a subject or object to the relative clause in addition to the relative pronoun:
^ • The man who gave me the book was the librarian, (not The man who he gave me...)
*Notice also that adding a pronoun to the main clause in addition to the relative clause is
unnecessary, although it is found in speech:
• A friend of mine who is a solicitor helped me. (or, in speech A friend of mine who is a
solicitor - she helped me.)
Relative clauses (2)—(4) =
UNIT
EXERCISES 70
70.1 Complete the sentences with the correct or most appropriate relative pronoun. Give alternatives
if possible. (Use - to indicate zero relative pronoun.) (B)
1 The thought of going home to his family was all kept him happy while he was
working abroad.
2 She was probably the hardest working student I've ever taught.
3 Lewis, the man Johnson beat in the last World Championships, has broken the
world record.
4 Lighting bonfires at this time of the year is a tradition goes back to the 17th century.
5 Dorothy said something I couldn't hear clearly.
6 There was little we could do to help her.
7 The Royal Floridian is an express train runs between New York and Miami.
8 The machine I have to use in my job cost over a million pounds.
9 The diary Ron kept when he was in prison was sold for $50, 000.
10 I have a friend ran in the New York Marathon last year.
11 We were told that we would be held responsible for anything went wrong.
12 He's probably the best golfer I've played against.
70.2 Write the information in brackets as a relative clause in an appropriate place in the sentence.
Give alternative relative pronouns if possible. (Use - to indicate zero relative pronoun.) (A & B)
1 Jane has now sold the old car. (she was given it by her parents) Jcme V\OJS now sold tile old
car wHlcd/ihai/- she was given by Her parents.
2 The house is for sale, (it is next to ours)
3 Most of the forests have now been destroyed, (they once covered Britain)
4 He took me to see the old farmhouse, (he is rebuilding it)
5 There have been complaints about the noise from people, (they live in the flats)
6 A doctor has had to retire through ill health, (we know him)
70.3 Correct these sentences or put a S. (A-C)
1 My brother who is in the army he came to see us.
2 A small amount of money was all which was taken in the robbery.
3 The path was made by walkers who crossed the mountains each summer.
4 The difficulties of living near the volcano are well understood by the people farm the land
there.
5 The danger of driving is something which worries me each time I travel.
6 The park which I usually go running in is across the road.
7 I bought the present that I gave him it for Christmas in Japan.
8 The person whom we selected to represent us on the committee has had to resign due to
illness.
9 It's one of the most interesting books I've read this year.
141
K e i a t i v e c l a u s e s (Z) ( i o m , w n o is o n i y s i x , c a n
s p e a k t h r e e l a n g u a g e s . )
Some relative clauses are used to add extra information about a noun, but this information is
not necessary to explain which person or thing we mean:
• Valerie Polkoff, who has died aged 90, escaped from Russia with her family in 1917.
• We received an offer of £80, 000 for the house, which we accepted.
These are sometimes called non-defining relative clauses. We don't use them often in everyday
speech, but they occur frequently in written English. Notice that we put a comma between the
Qnoun and a non-defining relative clause, and another comma at the end of this clause if it is not
•also the end of a sentence.
When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about a person or people:
• we use who as the subject of the clause
• One of the people arrested
was Mary Arundel, who
is a member of the local council.
• we use who or whom as the object of the clause,
although whom is more formal and rarely
used in spoken English:
• Professor Johnson, who(m) I have long admired, is to visit the university next week.
When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about a thing or group of things,
we use which as the subject or object of the clause:
• These *****, which are used to treat stomach ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale.
• That Masters course, which I took in 1990, is no longer taught at the college.
That is sometimes used instead of which, but some people think this is incorrect, so it is
probably safer not to use it. We also use which to refer to the whole situation talked about in
the sentence outside the relative clause:
• The book won't be published until next year, which is disappointing.
• I have to go to hospital on Monday, which means I won't be able to see you.
We can also use whose in a non-defining relative clause (see also Unit 72):
• Neil Adams, whose parents are both teachers, won first prize in the competition.
•Notice that we don't use zero relative pronoun in a non-defining relative clause.
When we want to add information about the whole or a part of a particular number of things or
people we can use a non-defining relative clause with of which or of whom after words such as
all, both, each, many, most, neither, none, part, some, a number (one, two, etc.; the first, the
second, etc.; half, a third, etc.) and superlatives (the best, the biggest, etc.):
• The speed of growth of a plant is influenced by a number of factors, most of which we have
no control over.
• The bank was held up by a group of men, three of whom were said to be armed.
• The President has made many visits to Japan, the most recent of which began today.
We can use the following phrases at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause: at which
point/time, by which point/time, during which time, and in which case:
• It might snow this weekend, in which case we won't go to Wales.
• The bandages will be taken off a few days after the operation, at which point we will be able
to judge how effective the treatment has been.
• The next Olympics are in three years, by which time Stevens will be 34.
Relative clauses (1), (3) and (4)
UNIT
EXERCISES 71
71.1 Add one of the pieces of information below to each sentence. Add who or which, and put the
non-defining relative clause in an appropriate place in the sentence. (A)
has more than 50 members caused such damage in the islands is an aviation expert
stole a computer from the office is set in the north of Australia ended yesterday
has wore- than 50 members,
1 The Southam Chess Club L meets weekly on Friday evenings.
2 Dr Richard Newman was asked to comment on the latest helicopter crash.
3 The strike by train drivers is estimated to have cost over £3 million.
4 John Graham's latest film is his first for more than five years.
5 The police are looking for two boys aged about 14.
6 The hurricane has now headed out to sea.
71.2 Write two sentences as one, using a non-defining relative clause beginning with all, both, each,
etc., + of which or of whom. (B)
1 The film is about the lives of three women. Kate Dillon plays all the women.
TVie -film Is about the lives of three women, ail of whom are played by kaie, Dillon.
2 The island's two million inhabitants have been badly affected by the drought. Most of the
island's inhabitants are peasant farmers.
3 She has two older brothers. Neither of her brothers went to university.
4 About 30 of her friends and relations came to the airport to welcome her back. Many of her
friends and relations had travelled long distances.
5 The minister has recently visited Estonia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. They all have large
Russian minorities.
6 The fish are multi-coloured. The biggest of the fish is only 2 cm long.
7 Scotland have won their last five international matches. One of these matches was against
England.
Decide which of the underlined phrases is correct in these sentences and add an appropriate
preposition in the space. (C)
1 I might fail the test, ...!#.. which case / which point I'd probably re-sit it next year.
2 A bull charged towards the car, which time / which point I drove away quickly.
3 I didn't finish work until 10 o'clock, which time / which case everyone had already
gone home.
4 The meeting might go on for three or four hours, which time / which case I'll be late
home from work.
5 Sam started to tell one of his terrible old jokes, which point / which case I decided that I
should go home.
6 I hadn't seen Jane for nearly ten years, which point / which time I had got married and
had two children.
143
R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s ( 3 ) : o t h e r r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s
whose
We use a relative clause beginning with whose + noun, particularly in written English, when we
talk about something belonging to or associated with a person. Compare:
• Stevenson is an architect. Her designs have won international praise, and
• Stevenson is an architect whose designs have won international praise.
• Dr Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretary resigned two weeks ago. and
• Dr Rowan, whose secretary resigned two weeks ago, has had to all his own typing.
We can use whose in both defining and non-defining relative clauses (see Units 70 & 71).
We sometimes use whose when we are talking about things, in particular when we are talking
about towns or countries, and organisations:
Sf • The film was made in Botswana, whose wildlife parks are larger than those in Kenya.
• • We need to learn from companies whose trading is more healthy than our own.
• The newspaper is owned by the Mearson Group, whose chairman is Sir James Bex.
We can also use whose when we are talking about particular items, although it is often more
natural in spoken English to avoid sentences like this:
• I received a letter, whose poor spelling made me think it was written by a child.
(more natural would be I received a letter, and its poor spelling...)
where, when, whereby, why
We often use the words where, when, and whereby as relative pronouns. But in formal English
in particular, a phrase with preposition + which can often be used instead:
• This was the place (where) we first met. (or ...the place at/in which we...)
• He wasn't looking forward to the time (when) he would have to give evidence to the court.
(or ...the time at which he would...)
• Do you know the date when we have to submit the first essay? (or ...the date on/by which
we have to submit the first essay?)
• The government is to end the system whereby (= by which means) farmers make more
money from leaving land unplanted than from growing wheat, (or ...the system in/by which
farmers...)
We can also use why as a relative pronoun after the word reason. In informal English we can use
that instead of why:
• I didn't get a pay rise, but this wasn't the reason why I left, (or ...the reason (that) I left.)
who, what, whatever, whoever, whichever
We sometimes use relative clauses beginning with who or what. In this case, who means 'the
people that' and what means something like 'the thing(s) that':
• Can you give me a list of who's been invited?
• I didn't know what to do next.
©Notice that we can't use what in this way after a noun:
• • I managed to get all the books that you asked for. (not ...books what you asked for.)
Relative clauses beginning with whatever (= anything or it doesn't matter what), whoever (= the
person/group who or any person/group who), or whichever (= one thing or person from a
limited number of things or people) are used to talk about things or people that are indefinite or
unknown:
• I'm sure I'll enjoy eating whatever you cook.
• Whoever wins will go on to play Barcelona in the final.
• Whichever one of you broke the window will have to pay for it.
Relative clauses (1), (2) and (4) =
UNIT
EXERCISES 72
72.1 Choose one of the relative clauses below to add to each sentence in an appropriate place. Use
each relative clause once only. Add commas where necessary. (A)
whose first language is not English whose caterpillars tunnel under the bark
whose meanings you don't know whose head office is situated in France
whose work involves standing for most of the day whose mother is Indonesian
wHose meanings you. don't know
1 First, go through the text underlining the words L .
2 My friend Miriam has gone to live in Jakarta.
3 He's a teacher in London working with children.
4 People often suffer from backache.
5 It has been found that the trees are being destroyed by a moth.
6 The airline has recently begun to fly between Paris and Lima.
72.2 Choose one of the following phrases and either where, when, whereby, or why to complete
these sentences. Use each phrase once only. (B)
the situation the place the reason the time the agreement the building
1 The beach is ...J^.?:..R!4*£..w!l5rS'... I most like to be in the summer.
2 whisky made in Japan can be sold in Britain has been criticised in Scotland.
3 The period during which Russ lived in Italy was also he began to paint.
4 The new law means an end to charities have to pay tax on money given to
them.
5 I used to work had 24 floors.
6 He has been unwell, and this may be he lost the match.
72.3 // the underlined word is correct, put a S. If not, suggest another word. (C)
1 Buy vanilla ice cream. It's the only flavour what he likes.
2 Whoever party comes to power at the election will face major economic problems.
3 The room was lit only by the candle that Martha carried.
4 It is difficult to predict that she will do next.
5 Whoever wins the contract to build the tunnel will have a very difficult job to do.
6 'Do you want to drive or go by train?' 'I'd prefer to travel what way is faster.'
7 Help yourself to fruit from the trees in the garden. Take whichever you want.
8 She had thought a lot about that she was going to say.
72.4 Define these items using whose (1-4) and in which (5-7). You may need to use a dictionary. (A)
1 A widower is a man wHose wife Has died, and, wHo Has not re-roanied.
2 An orphan is...
3 A plumber is... job it is to... \T-|>—i
4 A refuse collector is...
5 A referendum is a vote...
6 Morse code is...
7 A chat show is...
145
K e i a t i v e c l a u s e s ( 4 ) : p r e p o s i t i o n s in r e i a u v e
c l a u s e s
In formal styles we often put a preposition before the relative pronouns which and whom:
• The rate at which a material heats up depends on its chemical composition.
• In the novel by Peters, on which the film is based, the main character is a teenager.
• An actor with whom Gelson had previously worked contacted him about the role.
• Her many friends, among whom I like to be considered, gave her encouragement.
Notice that after a preposition you can't use who instead of whom, and you can't use that or zero
relative pronoun:
• Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the public to
whom they are accountable? (not ...the public to who they are accountable.)
• The valley in which the town lies is heavily polluted, (not The valley in that the town...)
• Arnold tried to gauge the speed at which they were travelling, (not ...the speed at they were
travelling.)
In informal English we usually put the preposition later in the relative clause rather than at the
beginning:
• The office which Graham led the way to was filled with books.
• Jim's footballing ability, which he was noted for, had been encouraged by his parents.
• The playground wasn't used by those children who it was built for.
this case we prefer who rather than whom (although 'whom' is used in formal contexts). In
'defining relative clauses we can also use that or zero relative pronoun instead of who or which
(e.g. ...the children (that) it was built for).
If the verb in the relative clause is a two- or three-word verb (e.g. come across, fill in, go
through, look after, look up to, put up with, take on) we don't usually put the preposition
before the relative pronoun:
• Your essay is one of those (which/that) I'll go through tomorrow, (rather than ...through
which I'll go tomorrow.)
• She is one of the few people (who/that) I look up to. (not ...to whom I look up.)
In formal written English, we often prefer to use of which rather than whose to talk about
things:
• A huge amount of oil was spilled, the effects of which are still being felt, (or ...whose effects
are still being felt.)
• The end of the war, the anniversary of which is on the 16th of November, will be
commemorated in cities throughout the country, (or ...whose anniversary is on...)
Notice that we can't use of which instead of whose in the patterns described in Unit 71B:
• Dorothy was able to switch between German, Polish and Russian, all of which she spoke
fluently, (not ...all whose she spoke...)
We can sometimes use that...of instead of of which. This is less formal than of which and whose,
and is mainly used in spoken English:
• The school that she is head of is closing down, (or The school of which she is head...)
Whose can come after a preposition in a relative clause. However, it is more natural to put the
preposition at the end of the clause in less formal contexts and in spoken English:
• We were grateful to Mr Marks, in whose car we had travelled home, (or ...whose car we had
travelled home in.)
• I now turn to Freud, from whose work the following quotation is taken, (or ...whose work
the following quotation is taken from.)
Relative clauses => Two- and three-word verbs => IIIIHULI
UNIT
EXERCISES 73
73.1 Join the sentence halves using which or whom after an appropriate preposition. (A)
I would never have finished the work. it was primarily written.
we know nothing. they got a good view. he learned how to play chess.
Dennis scored three goals in the final. she was born. it was discovered.
1 They climbed up to the top of a large rock, -from which they got a. good view.
2 I would like to thank my tutor,
3 She has now moved back to the house on Long Island
4 The star is to be named after Patrick Jenks,
5 This is the ball
6 He is now able to beat his father,
7 The book is enjoyed by adults as well as children,
8 There are still many things in our solar system
73.2 How would you express the sentences you have written in 73.1 in a less formal way, putting the
preposition at the end of the relative clause? (A)
Example: 1 They climbed up to the top of a. Urge rock, which they got a. good view -from.
73.3 Are these correct or appropriate? If they are, put a S. If they are not, give a reason, correct them
and give alternatives if you can. (A)
1 It's a piece of jewellery across which I came m an antique shop. .. .which I caxne- across In am
antique shop. ('came across' Is a. two-word verb.)
2 The extra work which she took on was starting to affect her health.
3 My mother, after whom I looked for over 20 years, died last year.
4 The people whom I work with are all very friendly.
5 Some of the criticisms with which they had to put up were very unfair.
6 He had many friends with whom he had a regular correspondence.
7 The woman to who he is engaged comes from Poland.
8 The forms which I had to fill in were very complicated.
73.4 Rewrite these sentences so that they are more appropriate for formal written English. Use
preposition + which or preposition + whose, as appropriate. (B)
1 Tom Sims, whose car the weapons were found in, has been arrested. Tom Sims, In whose car
the weapons were -found, has been arrested.
2 Tom Hain, whose novel the TV series is based on, will appear in the first episode.
3 Dr Jackson owns the castle whose grounds the main road passes through.
4 Tessa Parsons is now managing director of Simons, the company that she was once a
secretary in.
5 Allowing the weapons to be sold is an action that the Government should be ashamed of.
6 The dragonfly is an insect that we know very little of.
147
P a r t i c i p l e c l a u s e s ( - i n g , - e d a n d b e i n g - e d )
I
We can give information about someone or something using an -ing, past participle (-ed) or
being + past participle (-ed) clause after a noun. These clauses are often similar to defining
relative clauses (see Unit 70) beginning which, who, or that:
• We stood on the bridge connecting the two halves of the building, (or ...which
connects/connected the two halves...)
• The weapon used in the murder has now been found, (or The weapon that was used...)
• The prisoners being released are all women, (or ...who are being released...)
See Unit 75 for participle clauses with a meaning similar to non-defining relative clauses.
-ing clauses
We often use an -ing clause instead of a defining relative clause with an active verb:
• The man driving the bus is my brother, (or The man who is driving the bus...)
• The land stretching away to the left all belongs to Mrs Thompson, (or The land which
stretches away to the left...)
• Police took away Dr Li and items belonging to him. (or ...items which belong/belonged to
him.)
Sometimes, however, we can't use an -ing clause. For example:
• when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause:
• The man who Tim is meeting for lunch is from Taiwan, (not ...the man Tim meeting...)
• when the event or action talked about in the defining relative clause comes before the event or
action talked about in the rest of the sentence, except when the second event or action is the
result of the first. Compare:
• The snow which fell overnight has turned to ice. (not The snow falling overnight...) and
• The snow which fell overnight has caused traffic chaos, (or The snow falling overnight has
caused traffic chaos.)
• when we talk about a single, completed action in the defining relative clause, rather than a
continuous action. Compare:
• The girl who fell over on the ice broke her arm. (not The girl falling over...) and
• I pulled off the sheets which covered the furniture, (or ...sheets covering the furniture.)
Past participle (-ed) and being + past participle (-ed) clauses
We often use a past participle or being + past participle clause instead of a defining relative
clause with a passive verb:
• The book published last week is his first written for children, (or The book that was
published last week...)
• The boys being chosen for the team are under 9. (or The boys who are being chosen...)
Sometimes, however, we can't use a past participle or being + past participle clause. For example:
• when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause:
• The speed at which decisions are made in the company is worrying, (not The speed at which
decisions made...)
• The issue that club members are being asked to vote on at tonight's meeting is that of a fee
increase... (not The issue being asked to vote on...)
• when the defining relative clause includes a modal verb other than will:
• There are a number of people who should be asked, (not ...people should be asked.)
Defining relative clauses = Participle clauses with adverbial meaning =Participle adjectives =
EXERCISES
74.1 Match the sentences in the most likely way, and write them as one sentence using an -ing
clause. (B)
74.2
UNIT
7 4
1 Some wooden beams hold up the roof.
2 Some teachers attended the meeting.
3 Some people were driving past.
4 A man was operating the equipment.
5 A girl is waiting for the bus.
6 Some steps lead down to the river.
a They waved to us.
b He was dressed in protective clothing.
c They decided to go on strike.
d They are dangerous.
e They have been damaged.
f She is Jack's daughter.
• )
4
S
f,
The
The
The
The
The
Complete these sentences with the past participle form of an appropriate verb and one of these
phrases. (D)
from the jeweller on the label to the players on the motorway
to represent Britain at today's meeting in the storm
1 The road repairs ...«^l^..ow.t on.^e.mptorwiuj... might delay traffic.
2 The decisions will affect all of us.
3 The building will have to be demolished.
4 Jack Sullivan was the man in the 100 metres.
5 The warning about their behaviour on the pitch was ignored.
6 All the rings and necklaces have now been recovered.
7 The instructions say it should only take a few minutes to cook.
74.3 If possible, change the relative clause in these sentences to an -ing, past participle or being + past
participle clause as appropriate. If it is not possible, write X after the sentence. (B-E)
1 The people who are being asked to take early retirement are all over the age of 60.
.. .people, being asked, to take...
2 The book that she wanted to borrow wasn't available in the library.
3 The eye hospital has recently obtained new equipment which will allow far more patients to
be treated.
4 The children who are being moved to another school all have learning difficulties.
5 The man who died in the accident came from Bulgaria.
6 An agreement has been signed to protect the forests which are being cut down all over the
world.
7 I ran through the crowd of people who were hurrying to get to work.
8 If you know of anyone who would like to buy Maggie's car, let me know.
9 The trees that were blown down in last night's storm have been moved off the road.
10 The woman who visited us last week has sent us a present.
149
P a r t i c i p l e c l a u s e s w i t h a d v e r b i a l m e a n i n g
We can use an -ing form of a verb or the past participle in a clause which has an adverbial
meaning. A clause like this often gives information about TIME or REASONS and RESULTS:
• Opening her eyes, the baby began to cry. (= When she opened her eyes...)
• Faced with a bill for £10, 000, John has taken an extra job. (= Because he is faced...)
They are often similar to non-defining relative clauses (see Unit 71) with which, who, or that:
• Feeling tired, Louise went to bed early, (or Louise, who was feeling tired, went...)
• Formed 25 years ago next month, the club is holding a party for past and present members.
(or The club, which was formed 25 years ago next month, is holding...)
The following sentences illustrate other forms of verbs in clauses like this:
• Being imported, the radios were more expensive.
• Having been hunted close to extinction, the rhino is once again common in this area.
In negative forms of sentences like this, not usually comes before the -ing form or past participle.
However, not can follow the -ing form or the past participle, depending on meaning:
• Not wanting to wake her, Steve left the house silently. (= He didn't want to...)
• Preferring not to go out that night, I made an excuse. (= I preferred not to...)
©The implied subject of a clause like this is usually the same as the subject of the main clause:
• • Arriving at the party, we saw Ruth standing alone. (= When we arrived...we saw...)
However, sometimes the implied subject is not referred to in the main clause:
• Having wanted to drive a train all his life, this was an opportunity not to be missed.
In more formal English, the -ing or past participle clause sometimes has its own subject:
• The score being level after 90 minutes, a replay will take place.
In general, using an -ing, past participle, or being + past participle clause instead of a clause
beginning with a conjunction (when, because, etc.) or a non-defining relative clause makes what
we say or write more formal. Clauses like this are used particularly in formal or literary writing.
Some clauses like this are used to give information about TIME:
• Glancing over his shoulder, he could see the dog chasing him. (= As he glanced ...)
• Having completed the book, he had a holiday. (= After he had completed the book...)
We use an -ing clause to talk about something that takes place at the same time or very close in
time to the action in the main clause:
• Putting on a serious face, she began to tell the story.
We often use an -ing clause in written narrative after quoted speech, when we want to say what
someone was doing while they were talking:
• 'Wait a minute,' said Frank, running through the door.
If the action described is relatively long compared with the one described in the main clause, we
ouse a clause beginning having + past participle:
• • Having driven five hours to the meeting, Don learnt that it had been postponed.
Sometimes we can use either an -ing clause or a having + past participle clause with similar
meanings, although using a having + past participle clause emphasises that something is
completed before the action in the main clause begins. Compare:
a b o u t . )
i H i n e g i n w n u i w a s
B
A relative clause gives more information about someone or something referred to in a main
clause. Some relative clauses (defining relative clauses) are used to specify which person or thing
we mean, or which type of person or thing we mean:
• The couple who live next to us have sixteen grandchildren.
• Andrew stopped the police car that was driving past.
Notice that we don't put a comma between the noun and a defining relative clause. Relative
clauses begin with a relative pronoun: a wh-yvovA (who, which, etc.) or that. However,
sometimes we omit the wh-word I that and use a zero relative pronoun (see B below):
• We went to a restaurant (which/that) Jane had recommended to us.
We prefer to put a relative clause immediately after or as close as possible to the noun it adds
information to:
^ • The building for sale was the house which had a slate roof and was by the stream.
• (rather than The building for sale was the house by the stream which had a slate roof.)
When we use a defining relative clause, the relative pronoun can be the subject or the object of
the clause. In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the subject. Notice that the verb
follows the relative pronoun:
• Rockall is an uninhabited island which/that lies north west of mainland Scotland.
• We have a friend who/that plays the piano.
In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the object. Notice that there is a noun (or
pronoun) between the relative pronoun and the verb in the relative clause. In this case, we can
use a zero relative pronoun:
• He showed me the rocks (which/that) he had brought back from Australia.
• That's the man (who/that) I met at Allison's party.
Adding information about things Adding information about people
Relative
pronoun
subject
object
which
/
/
that
/
/
zero relative
pronoun
X
/
Relative
pronoun
subject
object
who
/
/
that
/
/
zero relative
pronoun
X
We can also use whom instead of who as object, although whom is very formal:
• She's an actress whom most people think is at the peak of her career.
We use that as subject after something and anything; words such as all, little, much, and none
used as nouns; and superlatives. (Which is also used as subject after something and anything, but
less commonly.) We use that or zero relative pronoun as object after these:
• These walls are all that remain of the city, (not ...all which remain...)
• She's one of the kindest people (that) I know, (not ...who I know.)
• Is there anything (that) I can do to help? (rather than ...anything which I can do...)
You can't add a subject or object to the relative clause in addition to the relative pronoun:
^ • The man who gave me the book was the librarian, (not The man who he gave me...)
*Notice also that adding a pronoun to the main clause in addition to the relative clause is
unnecessary, although it is found in speech:
• A friend of mine who is a solicitor helped me. (or, in speech A friend of mine who is a
solicitor - she helped me.)
Relative clauses (2)—(4) =
UNIT
EXERCISES 70
70.1 Complete the sentences with the correct or most appropriate relative pronoun. Give alternatives
if possible. (Use - to indicate zero relative pronoun.) (B)
1 The thought of going home to his family was all kept him happy while he was
working abroad.
2 She was probably the hardest working student I've ever taught.
3 Lewis, the man Johnson beat in the last World Championships, has broken the
world record.
4 Lighting bonfires at this time of the year is a tradition goes back to the 17th century.
5 Dorothy said something I couldn't hear clearly.
6 There was little we could do to help her.
7 The Royal Floridian is an express train runs between New York and Miami.
8 The machine I have to use in my job cost over a million pounds.
9 The diary Ron kept when he was in prison was sold for $50, 000.
10 I have a friend ran in the New York Marathon last year.
11 We were told that we would be held responsible for anything went wrong.
12 He's probably the best golfer I've played against.
70.2 Write the information in brackets as a relative clause in an appropriate place in the sentence.
Give alternative relative pronouns if possible. (Use - to indicate zero relative pronoun.) (A & B)
1 Jane has now sold the old car. (she was given it by her parents) Jcme V\OJS now sold tile old
car wHlcd/ihai/- she was given by Her parents.
2 The house is for sale, (it is next to ours)
3 Most of the forests have now been destroyed, (they once covered Britain)
4 He took me to see the old farmhouse, (he is rebuilding it)
5 There have been complaints about the noise from people, (they live in the flats)
6 A doctor has had to retire through ill health, (we know him)
70.3 Correct these sentences or put a S. (A-C)
1 My brother who is in the army he came to see us.
2 A small amount of money was all which was taken in the robbery.
3 The path was made by walkers who crossed the mountains each summer.
4 The difficulties of living near the volcano are well understood by the people farm the land
there.
5 The danger of driving is something which worries me each time I travel.
6 The park which I usually go running in is across the road.
7 I bought the present that I gave him it for Christmas in Japan.
8 The person whom we selected to represent us on the committee has had to resign due to
illness.
9 It's one of the most interesting books I've read this year.
141
K e i a t i v e c l a u s e s (Z) ( i o m , w n o is o n i y s i x , c a n
s p e a k t h r e e l a n g u a g e s . )
Some relative clauses are used to add extra information about a noun, but this information is
not necessary to explain which person or thing we mean:
• Valerie Polkoff, who has died aged 90, escaped from Russia with her family in 1917.
• We received an offer of £80, 000 for the house, which we accepted.
These are sometimes called non-defining relative clauses. We don't use them often in everyday
speech, but they occur frequently in written English. Notice that we put a comma between the
Qnoun and a non-defining relative clause, and another comma at the end of this clause if it is not
•also the end of a sentence.
When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about a person or people:
• we use who as the subject of the clause
• One of the people arrested
was Mary Arundel, who
is a member of the local council.
• we use who or whom as the object of the clause,
although whom is more formal and rarely
used in spoken English:
• Professor Johnson, who(m) I have long admired, is to visit the university next week.
When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about a thing or group of things,
we use which as the subject or object of the clause:
• These *****, which are used to treat stomach ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale.
• That Masters course, which I took in 1990, is no longer taught at the college.
That is sometimes used instead of which, but some people think this is incorrect, so it is
probably safer not to use it. We also use which to refer to the whole situation talked about in
the sentence outside the relative clause:
• The book won't be published until next year, which is disappointing.
• I have to go to hospital on Monday, which means I won't be able to see you.
We can also use whose in a non-defining relative clause (see also Unit 72):
• Neil Adams, whose parents are both teachers, won first prize in the competition.
•Notice that we don't use zero relative pronoun in a non-defining relative clause.
When we want to add information about the whole or a part of a particular number of things or
people we can use a non-defining relative clause with of which or of whom after words such as
all, both, each, many, most, neither, none, part, some, a number (one, two, etc.; the first, the
second, etc.; half, a third, etc.) and superlatives (the best, the biggest, etc.):
• The speed of growth of a plant is influenced by a number of factors, most of which we have
no control over.
• The bank was held up by a group of men, three of whom were said to be armed.
• The President has made many visits to Japan, the most recent of which began today.
We can use the following phrases at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause: at which
point/time, by which point/time, during which time, and in which case:
• It might snow this weekend, in which case we won't go to Wales.
• The bandages will be taken off a few days after the operation, at which point we will be able
to judge how effective the treatment has been.
• The next Olympics are in three years, by which time Stevens will be 34.
Relative clauses (1), (3) and (4)
UNIT
EXERCISES 71
71.1 Add one of the pieces of information below to each sentence. Add who or which, and put the
non-defining relative clause in an appropriate place in the sentence. (A)
has more than 50 members caused such damage in the islands is an aviation expert
stole a computer from the office is set in the north of Australia ended yesterday
has wore- than 50 members,
1 The Southam Chess Club L meets weekly on Friday evenings.
2 Dr Richard Newman was asked to comment on the latest helicopter crash.
3 The strike by train drivers is estimated to have cost over £3 million.
4 John Graham's latest film is his first for more than five years.
5 The police are looking for two boys aged about 14.
6 The hurricane has now headed out to sea.
71.2 Write two sentences as one, using a non-defining relative clause beginning with all, both, each,
etc., + of which or of whom. (B)
1 The film is about the lives of three women. Kate Dillon plays all the women.
TVie -film Is about the lives of three women, ail of whom are played by kaie, Dillon.
2 The island's two million inhabitants have been badly affected by the drought. Most of the
island's inhabitants are peasant farmers.
3 She has two older brothers. Neither of her brothers went to university.
4 About 30 of her friends and relations came to the airport to welcome her back. Many of her
friends and relations had travelled long distances.
5 The minister has recently visited Estonia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. They all have large
Russian minorities.
6 The fish are multi-coloured. The biggest of the fish is only 2 cm long.
7 Scotland have won their last five international matches. One of these matches was against
England.
Decide which of the underlined phrases is correct in these sentences and add an appropriate
preposition in the space. (C)
1 I might fail the test, ...!#.. which case / which point I'd probably re-sit it next year.
2 A bull charged towards the car, which time / which point I drove away quickly.
3 I didn't finish work until 10 o'clock, which time / which case everyone had already
gone home.
4 The meeting might go on for three or four hours, which time / which case I'll be late
home from work.
5 Sam started to tell one of his terrible old jokes, which point / which case I decided that I
should go home.
6 I hadn't seen Jane for nearly ten years, which point / which time I had got married and
had two children.
143
R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s ( 3 ) : o t h e r r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s
whose
We use a relative clause beginning with whose + noun, particularly in written English, when we
talk about something belonging to or associated with a person. Compare:
• Stevenson is an architect. Her designs have won international praise, and
• Stevenson is an architect whose designs have won international praise.
• Dr Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretary resigned two weeks ago. and
• Dr Rowan, whose secretary resigned two weeks ago, has had to all his own typing.
We can use whose in both defining and non-defining relative clauses (see Units 70 & 71).
We sometimes use whose when we are talking about things, in particular when we are talking
about towns or countries, and organisations:
Sf • The film was made in Botswana, whose wildlife parks are larger than those in Kenya.
• • We need to learn from companies whose trading is more healthy than our own.
• The newspaper is owned by the Mearson Group, whose chairman is Sir James Bex.
We can also use whose when we are talking about particular items, although it is often more
natural in spoken English to avoid sentences like this:
• I received a letter, whose poor spelling made me think it was written by a child.
(more natural would be I received a letter, and its poor spelling...)
where, when, whereby, why
We often use the words where, when, and whereby as relative pronouns. But in formal English
in particular, a phrase with preposition + which can often be used instead:
• This was the place (where) we first met. (or ...the place at/in which we...)
• He wasn't looking forward to the time (when) he would have to give evidence to the court.
(or ...the time at which he would...)
• Do you know the date when we have to submit the first essay? (or ...the date on/by which
we have to submit the first essay?)
• The government is to end the system whereby (= by which means) farmers make more
money from leaving land unplanted than from growing wheat, (or ...the system in/by which
farmers...)
We can also use why as a relative pronoun after the word reason. In informal English we can use
that instead of why:
• I didn't get a pay rise, but this wasn't the reason why I left, (or ...the reason (that) I left.)
who, what, whatever, whoever, whichever
We sometimes use relative clauses beginning with who or what. In this case, who means 'the
people that' and what means something like 'the thing(s) that':
• Can you give me a list of who's been invited?
• I didn't know what to do next.
©Notice that we can't use what in this way after a noun:
• • I managed to get all the books that you asked for. (not ...books what you asked for.)
Relative clauses beginning with whatever (= anything or it doesn't matter what), whoever (= the
person/group who or any person/group who), or whichever (= one thing or person from a
limited number of things or people) are used to talk about things or people that are indefinite or
unknown:
• I'm sure I'll enjoy eating whatever you cook.
• Whoever wins will go on to play Barcelona in the final.
• Whichever one of you broke the window will have to pay for it.
Relative clauses (1), (2) and (4) =
UNIT
EXERCISES 72
72.1 Choose one of the relative clauses below to add to each sentence in an appropriate place. Use
each relative clause once only. Add commas where necessary. (A)
whose first language is not English whose caterpillars tunnel under the bark
whose meanings you don't know whose head office is situated in France
whose work involves standing for most of the day whose mother is Indonesian
wHose meanings you. don't know
1 First, go through the text underlining the words L .
2 My friend Miriam has gone to live in Jakarta.
3 He's a teacher in London working with children.
4 People often suffer from backache.
5 It has been found that the trees are being destroyed by a moth.
6 The airline has recently begun to fly between Paris and Lima.
72.2 Choose one of the following phrases and either where, when, whereby, or why to complete
these sentences. Use each phrase once only. (B)
the situation the place the reason the time the agreement the building
1 The beach is ...J^.?:..R!4*£..w!l5rS'... I most like to be in the summer.
2 whisky made in Japan can be sold in Britain has been criticised in Scotland.
3 The period during which Russ lived in Italy was also he began to paint.
4 The new law means an end to charities have to pay tax on money given to
them.
5 I used to work had 24 floors.
6 He has been unwell, and this may be he lost the match.
72.3 // the underlined word is correct, put a S. If not, suggest another word. (C)
1 Buy vanilla ice cream. It's the only flavour what he likes.
2 Whoever party comes to power at the election will face major economic problems.
3 The room was lit only by the candle that Martha carried.
4 It is difficult to predict that she will do next.
5 Whoever wins the contract to build the tunnel will have a very difficult job to do.
6 'Do you want to drive or go by train?' 'I'd prefer to travel what way is faster.'
7 Help yourself to fruit from the trees in the garden. Take whichever you want.
8 She had thought a lot about that she was going to say.
72.4 Define these items using whose (1-4) and in which (5-7). You may need to use a dictionary. (A)
1 A widower is a man wHose wife Has died, and, wHo Has not re-roanied.
2 An orphan is...
3 A plumber is... job it is to... \T-|>—i
4 A refuse collector is...
5 A referendum is a vote...
6 Morse code is...
7 A chat show is...
145
K e i a t i v e c l a u s e s ( 4 ) : p r e p o s i t i o n s in r e i a u v e
c l a u s e s
In formal styles we often put a preposition before the relative pronouns which and whom:
• The rate at which a material heats up depends on its chemical composition.
• In the novel by Peters, on which the film is based, the main character is a teenager.
• An actor with whom Gelson had previously worked contacted him about the role.
• Her many friends, among whom I like to be considered, gave her encouragement.
Notice that after a preposition you can't use who instead of whom, and you can't use that or zero
relative pronoun:
• Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the public to
whom they are accountable? (not ...the public to who they are accountable.)
• The valley in which the town lies is heavily polluted, (not The valley in that the town...)
• Arnold tried to gauge the speed at which they were travelling, (not ...the speed at they were
travelling.)
In informal English we usually put the preposition later in the relative clause rather than at the
beginning:
• The office which Graham led the way to was filled with books.
• Jim's footballing ability, which he was noted for, had been encouraged by his parents.
• The playground wasn't used by those children who it was built for.
this case we prefer who rather than whom (although 'whom' is used in formal contexts). In
'defining relative clauses we can also use that or zero relative pronoun instead of who or which
(e.g. ...the children (that) it was built for).
If the verb in the relative clause is a two- or three-word verb (e.g. come across, fill in, go
through, look after, look up to, put up with, take on) we don't usually put the preposition
before the relative pronoun:
• Your essay is one of those (which/that) I'll go through tomorrow, (rather than ...through
which I'll go tomorrow.)
• She is one of the few people (who/that) I look up to. (not ...to whom I look up.)
In formal written English, we often prefer to use of which rather than whose to talk about
things:
• A huge amount of oil was spilled, the effects of which are still being felt, (or ...whose effects
are still being felt.)
• The end of the war, the anniversary of which is on the 16th of November, will be
commemorated in cities throughout the country, (or ...whose anniversary is on...)
Notice that we can't use of which instead of whose in the patterns described in Unit 71B:
• Dorothy was able to switch between German, Polish and Russian, all of which she spoke
fluently, (not ...all whose she spoke...)
We can sometimes use that...of instead of of which. This is less formal than of which and whose,
and is mainly used in spoken English:
• The school that she is head of is closing down, (or The school of which she is head...)
Whose can come after a preposition in a relative clause. However, it is more natural to put the
preposition at the end of the clause in less formal contexts and in spoken English:
• We were grateful to Mr Marks, in whose car we had travelled home, (or ...whose car we had
travelled home in.)
• I now turn to Freud, from whose work the following quotation is taken, (or ...whose work
the following quotation is taken from.)
Relative clauses => Two- and three-word verbs => IIIIHULI
UNIT
EXERCISES 73
73.1 Join the sentence halves using which or whom after an appropriate preposition. (A)
I would never have finished the work. it was primarily written.
we know nothing. they got a good view. he learned how to play chess.
Dennis scored three goals in the final. she was born. it was discovered.
1 They climbed up to the top of a large rock, -from which they got a. good view.
2 I would like to thank my tutor,
3 She has now moved back to the house on Long Island
4 The star is to be named after Patrick Jenks,
5 This is the ball
6 He is now able to beat his father,
7 The book is enjoyed by adults as well as children,
8 There are still many things in our solar system
73.2 How would you express the sentences you have written in 73.1 in a less formal way, putting the
preposition at the end of the relative clause? (A)
Example: 1 They climbed up to the top of a. Urge rock, which they got a. good view -from.
73.3 Are these correct or appropriate? If they are, put a S. If they are not, give a reason, correct them
and give alternatives if you can. (A)
1 It's a piece of jewellery across which I came m an antique shop. .. .which I caxne- across In am
antique shop. ('came across' Is a. two-word verb.)
2 The extra work which she took on was starting to affect her health.
3 My mother, after whom I looked for over 20 years, died last year.
4 The people whom I work with are all very friendly.
5 Some of the criticisms with which they had to put up were very unfair.
6 He had many friends with whom he had a regular correspondence.
7 The woman to who he is engaged comes from Poland.
8 The forms which I had to fill in were very complicated.
73.4 Rewrite these sentences so that they are more appropriate for formal written English. Use
preposition + which or preposition + whose, as appropriate. (B)
1 Tom Sims, whose car the weapons were found in, has been arrested. Tom Sims, In whose car
the weapons were -found, has been arrested.
2 Tom Hain, whose novel the TV series is based on, will appear in the first episode.
3 Dr Jackson owns the castle whose grounds the main road passes through.
4 Tessa Parsons is now managing director of Simons, the company that she was once a
secretary in.
5 Allowing the weapons to be sold is an action that the Government should be ashamed of.
6 The dragonfly is an insect that we know very little of.
147
P a r t i c i p l e c l a u s e s ( - i n g , - e d a n d b e i n g - e d )
I
We can give information about someone or something using an -ing, past participle (-ed) or
being + past participle (-ed) clause after a noun. These clauses are often similar to defining
relative clauses (see Unit 70) beginning which, who, or that:
• We stood on the bridge connecting the two halves of the building, (or ...which
connects/connected the two halves...)
• The weapon used in the murder has now been found, (or The weapon that was used...)
• The prisoners being released are all women, (or ...who are being released...)
See Unit 75 for participle clauses with a meaning similar to non-defining relative clauses.
-ing clauses
We often use an -ing clause instead of a defining relative clause with an active verb:
• The man driving the bus is my brother, (or The man who is driving the bus...)
• The land stretching away to the left all belongs to Mrs Thompson, (or The land which
stretches away to the left...)
• Police took away Dr Li and items belonging to him. (or ...items which belong/belonged to
him.)
Sometimes, however, we can't use an -ing clause. For example:
• when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause:
• The man who Tim is meeting for lunch is from Taiwan, (not ...the man Tim meeting...)
• when the event or action talked about in the defining relative clause comes before the event or
action talked about in the rest of the sentence, except when the second event or action is the
result of the first. Compare:
• The snow which fell overnight has turned to ice. (not The snow falling overnight...) and
• The snow which fell overnight has caused traffic chaos, (or The snow falling overnight has
caused traffic chaos.)
• when we talk about a single, completed action in the defining relative clause, rather than a
continuous action. Compare:
• The girl who fell over on the ice broke her arm. (not The girl falling over...) and
• I pulled off the sheets which covered the furniture, (or ...sheets covering the furniture.)
Past participle (-ed) and being + past participle (-ed) clauses
We often use a past participle or being + past participle clause instead of a defining relative
clause with a passive verb:
• The book published last week is his first written for children, (or The book that was
published last week...)
• The boys being chosen for the team are under 9. (or The boys who are being chosen...)
Sometimes, however, we can't use a past participle or being + past participle clause. For example:
• when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause:
• The speed at which decisions are made in the company is worrying, (not The speed at which
decisions made...)
• The issue that club members are being asked to vote on at tonight's meeting is that of a fee
increase... (not The issue being asked to vote on...)
• when the defining relative clause includes a modal verb other than will:
• There are a number of people who should be asked, (not ...people should be asked.)
Defining relative clauses = Participle clauses with adverbial meaning =Participle adjectives =
EXERCISES
74.1 Match the sentences in the most likely way, and write them as one sentence using an -ing
clause. (B)
74.2
UNIT
7 4
1 Some wooden beams hold up the roof.
2 Some teachers attended the meeting.
3 Some people were driving past.
4 A man was operating the equipment.
5 A girl is waiting for the bus.
6 Some steps lead down to the river.
a They waved to us.
b He was dressed in protective clothing.
c They decided to go on strike.
d They are dangerous.
e They have been damaged.
f She is Jack's daughter.
• )
4
S
f,
The
The
The
The
The
Complete these sentences with the past participle form of an appropriate verb and one of these
phrases. (D)
from the jeweller on the label to the players on the motorway
to represent Britain at today's meeting in the storm
1 The road repairs ...«^l^..ow.t on.^e.mptorwiuj... might delay traffic.
2 The decisions will affect all of us.
3 The building will have to be demolished.
4 Jack Sullivan was the man in the 100 metres.
5 The warning about their behaviour on the pitch was ignored.
6 All the rings and necklaces have now been recovered.
7 The instructions say it should only take a few minutes to cook.
74.3 If possible, change the relative clause in these sentences to an -ing, past participle or being + past
participle clause as appropriate. If it is not possible, write X after the sentence. (B-E)
1 The people who are being asked to take early retirement are all over the age of 60.
.. .people, being asked, to take...
2 The book that she wanted to borrow wasn't available in the library.
3 The eye hospital has recently obtained new equipment which will allow far more patients to
be treated.
4 The children who are being moved to another school all have learning difficulties.
5 The man who died in the accident came from Bulgaria.
6 An agreement has been signed to protect the forests which are being cut down all over the
world.
7 I ran through the crowd of people who were hurrying to get to work.
8 If you know of anyone who would like to buy Maggie's car, let me know.
9 The trees that were blown down in last night's storm have been moved off the road.
10 The woman who visited us last week has sent us a present.
149
P a r t i c i p l e c l a u s e s w i t h a d v e r b i a l m e a n i n g
We can use an -ing form of a verb or the past participle in a clause which has an adverbial
meaning. A clause like this often gives information about TIME or REASONS and RESULTS:
• Opening her eyes, the baby began to cry. (= When she opened her eyes...)
• Faced with a bill for £10, 000, John has taken an extra job. (= Because he is faced...)
They are often similar to non-defining relative clauses (see Unit 71) with which, who, or that:
• Feeling tired, Louise went to bed early, (or Louise, who was feeling tired, went...)
• Formed 25 years ago next month, the club is holding a party for past and present members.
(or The club, which was formed 25 years ago next month, is holding...)
The following sentences illustrate other forms of verbs in clauses like this:
• Being imported, the radios were more expensive.
• Having been hunted close to extinction, the rhino is once again common in this area.
In negative forms of sentences like this, not usually comes before the -ing form or past participle.
However, not can follow the -ing form or the past participle, depending on meaning:
• Not wanting to wake her, Steve left the house silently. (= He didn't want to...)
• Preferring not to go out that night, I made an excuse. (= I preferred not to...)
©The implied subject of a clause like this is usually the same as the subject of the main clause:
• • Arriving at the party, we saw Ruth standing alone. (= When we arrived...we saw...)
However, sometimes the implied subject is not referred to in the main clause:
• Having wanted to drive a train all his life, this was an opportunity not to be missed.
In more formal English, the -ing or past participle clause sometimes has its own subject:
• The score being level after 90 minutes, a replay will take place.
In general, using an -ing, past participle, or being + past participle clause instead of a clause
beginning with a conjunction (when, because, etc.) or a non-defining relative clause makes what
we say or write more formal. Clauses like this are used particularly in formal or literary writing.
Some clauses like this are used to give information about TIME:
• Glancing over his shoulder, he could see the dog chasing him. (= As he glanced ...)
• Having completed the book, he had a holiday. (= After he had completed the book...)
We use an -ing clause to talk about something that takes place at the same time or very close in
time to the action in the main clause:
• Putting on a serious face, she began to tell the story.
We often use an -ing clause in written narrative after quoted speech, when we want to say what
someone was doing while they were talking:
• 'Wait a minute,' said Frank, running through the door.
If the action described is relatively long compared with the one described in the main clause, we
ouse a clause beginning having + past participle:
• • Having driven five hours to the meeting, Don learnt that it had been postponed.
Sometimes we can use either an -ing clause or a having + past participle clause with similar
meanings, although using a having + past participle clause emphasises that something is
completed before the action in the main clause begins. Compare: