Phonological Processes



Children pronounce words quite differently than adult speakers. Commonly, these differences are labeled as phonological processes (Ferguson, Menn, & Stoel-Gammon, 1992). Phonological processes are a common and predictable part of phonological development often recognized by parents as simple pronunciation errors.

Innately, children's phonemic capacity is limited. There are many theories on how children acquire language. Most theories concerning phonological development suggest that phonology is internal to children. Research has supported this theory by identifying predictable phonological processes that are present in all normally developing children. Those who believe that language development is innate attribute the presence of phonological processes to children's cognitive limitations. As children grow and mature into adults physically, their mental capacity also develops. As their phonemic capacity increases, their sound systems become less restrained by phonological processes and their phonology transitions into that of an adult (Bernhardt & Stemberger, 1998).

The following processes are frequent, systematic mistakes made by normally developing children. You many notice some unusual spellings in the examples that are provided. This is to help you understand the changes in sounds. Read the words out loud to help you hear the differences between the adult pronunciation of the word and the sounds produced by a child with the phonological process.





Common Phonological Processes:



Weak Syllable Deletion
- Description: The omission of a weak (unstressed) syllable that either comes before or after a stressed syllable.
- Examples: "telephone" pronounced as "tefone"
"yellow" pronounced as "yell"
"above" pronounced as "bov"
" tomato" pronounced as "may-toe"
"probably" pronounced as "prob-lee"
"paper" pronounced as "pape" Final Consonant Deletion
- Description: This process occurs when a child reduces a syllable by omitting the final consonant of that syllable.
- Examples: "pot" pronounced as "paw"
"bake" pronounced as "bay"
"nice" pronounced as "nie"
"cat" pronounced as "ca"
"coat" pronounced as "koe"
"phone" pronounced as "foe"
Reduplication
- Description: Reduplication is characterized by the repetition of a syllable. There are two types of reduplication, total reduplication and partial reduplication.
- Examples: "daddy" pronounced as "dada"
"baby" pronounced as "bay-bay"
"movie" pronounced as "moo-moo"
"water" pronounced as "wawa" Cluster Reduction
- Description: When a consonant is deleted from a consonant cluster the error is referred to as a cluster reduction. If there are three adjacent consonants in the same syllable, one or two of the consonants may be deleted.
- Examples: "snow" pronounced as "no"
" help" pronounced as "hep"
"play" pronounced as "pay"
"stripe" pronounced as "tripe" or "type" or "ripe"
"green" pronounced as "geen"
Stopping
- Description: The substitution of a stop for a fricative or an affricate .
- Examples: "sake" pronounced as "take" (fricative replaces a stop)
"zoo" pronounced as "do" (fricative replaces stop)
"Jane" pronounced as "dane" (affricate replaces stop) Fronting
- Description: The substitution of a velar consonants and palatal consonants with an alveolar place of articulation . - Examples: "cat" pronounced as "tat" (velar fronting)
"get" pronounced as "det" (palatal fronting)
"cookie" pronounced as "tootie" (velar fronting)
"match" pronounced as "mat" (palatal fronting)
Deaffrication
- Description: The substitution of a fricative for an affricate.
- Examples: "chip" pronounced as "ship"
"matches" pronounced as "mashes"
"ledge" pronounced as "lez"
"chalk" pronounced as "shock" Gliding
- Description: Replacing the consonants /l/ and /r/ with the consonants /w/ and /j/.
- Examples: "rabbit" pronounced as "wabbit"
"hello" pronounced as "heyo"
"look" pronounced as "wook"
"carrot" pronounced as "cawet"
Vocalization
- Description: This process is also referred to as "vowelization" because it is the substitution of a vowel for an /l/ or /r/ that follows a vowel. This process is commonly found in words that end in "r" and "el" sounds.
- Examples: "tiger" pronounced as "tie-goo"
"turn" pronounced as "ton"
"third" pronounced as "thud"
"water" pronounced as "wato" Labial Assimilation
- Description: The production of a nonlabial phoneme with a labial place of articulation. This happens because there is a labial phoneme elsewhere in the word.
- Examples: "book" pronounced as "buhp"
"mad" pronounced as "mab"
"cap" pronounced as "pap"
Velar Assimilation
- Description: This process occurs when a phoneme is produced with a velar place of articulation due to the presence of a velar phoneme elsewhere in the word.
- Examples: "cup" pronounced as 'kuk"
"gone" pronounced as "gong"
"take" pronounced as "kake"
"doggy" pronounced as "goggy" Alveolar Assimilation
- Description: This process occurs when a phoneme is produced with an alveolar place of articulation due to the presence of an alveolar phoneme elsewhere in the word.
- Examples: "time" pronounced as "tine"
"bat" pronounced as "dat"
"neck" pronounced as "net"
"shut" pronounced as "sut"
Prevocalic Voicing
- Description: When an unvoiced consonant preceding the vowel of a syllable is voiced, it is called prevocalic voicing.
- Examples: "pig" pronounced as "big"
"cup" pronounced as "gup"
"pear" pronounced as "bear"
"train" pronounced as "drain" Devoicing
- Description: When a syllable-final voiced phoneme that precedes a pause or silence between words is unvoiced, it is called devoicing.
- Examples: "bad" pronounced as "bat"
"led" pronounced as "let"
"card" pronounced as "cart"
"flag" pronounced as "flack"


All information and examples provided in this table were found in Larry H. Small's Fundamentals of Phonetics

For more information on phonological processes, you can visit the following websites:
Table of Phonological Processes in Normal Speech Development
Table of Phonological Simplification Processes
Common Phonological Processes




Idiosyncratic processes are displayed in children with disordered phonology and are not usually found in the speech of typically developing children. Many speech language pathologists consider these processes to be "red flags" because they are indicators of abnormal phonological development (Small, 2005).

Idiosyncratic Processes:



Glottal Replacement
- Description: "The substitution of a glottal stop for another consonant" (Small, 2005).
- Example: Replacing the "k" sound in the word "pick" with a glottal stop Backing
- Description: The substitution of velar stoops for consonants that are usually produced further back in the mouth.
- Example: "time" pronounced as "kime"
"zoom" pronounced as "goom"
Initial Consonant Deletion
- Description: When a single consonant at the beginning of a word is omitted it is called initial consonant deletion.
- Example: "cut" pronounced as "ut"
"game" pronounced as "aim" Stops Replacing Glides
- Description: "the substitution of a stop for a glide" (Small, 2005).
- Example: "yes" pronounced as "des"
"wait" pronounced as "bait"
Fricative Replacing Stops
- Description: "the substitution of a fricative for a stop" (Small, 2005).
- Example: "sit" pronounced as "sis"
"doll" pronounced as "zoll"

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Introduction:
There are many school-age children who have articulation problems. Some children have difficulty with one sound, while other children have difficulty with a whole group of sounds. Many people ask why? Believe it or not, all children have misarticulations while their language is developing. These normal speech errors are known as phonological processes. Some children do not outgrow these processes, and they develop articulation disorders.
Normal Speech Sound Acquisition:
There are many opinions on when sounds should be acquired and mastered. Here is a general guideline:
36 months (3 years): /n/, /m/, /p/, /h/, /t/
40-44 months (3.4-3.8 years): /f/, /w/, /ng/, /b/, /g/
48 months (3.6 years): /s/, /j/, /d/
48+ months (up to 6 years): /r/, /l/, /sh/, /ch/, /z/, /v/, /j/, /th/
While children are developing these sounds, it is common to replace a more difficult sound with an easier sound. Children also shorten words that have many syllables, and change word structure.
Phonological Processes:
Now that we know the basic norms for sound development, we can take a look at the natural process that this development involves.
Processes that disappear by age 3:
1. Unstressed syllable deletion. Children will leave out the unstressed syllable. For example, telphone for telephone.
Phonological
Processes
2. Final Consonant Deletion. Children will leave off the last consonant of a word. For example, boo for book.
3. Consonant Assimilation. One consonant in the word influences another.
For example, beb for bed, or coke for coat.
4. Reduplication. The child repeats the first syllable twice. For example, baba for bottle, or mamam for mommy.
5. Velar Fronting. The phonemes /k/ and /g/ which are made in the back of the throat or the velum, are substituted for sounds made in the front. For example, tookie for cookie or doat for goat.
Processes persisting after 3 years:
1. Cluster Reduction. A consonant in a cluster is omitted. For example, Santa Caus for Santa Claus or back for black.
2. Epenthasis: A vowel is misplaced or inserted in a word.
For example, balack for black.
3. Gliding: /r/ and /l/ are replaced by /w/. For example, wun for run.
4. Vocalization: Consonants are replaced by vowels. For example, boyd for bird.
5. Stopping: Fricative (ongoing) sounds are replaced by stops. For example, toup for soup or pit for peach.
By the first grade, or by age 7, these processes should be resolved. The most common processes that persist are stopping, gliding, and cluster reduction. When these processes persist speech therapy is indicated. The theory of therapy when these processes are involved, is that practice of one sound will carryover to a whole group of sounds. Sometimes this does work while other children need to work on sounds individually. First and second grade teachers should pay special attention to these processes since they may still occur later than they should.

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